Department of Evolutionary Anthropology (DEA)
Archer, W., Mackay, A., Porraz, G., Presnyakova, D., Stahlschmidt, M., 2026. Fire, temperature control, and silcrete heat treatment at Diepkloof and Mertenhof Rock Shelters, West Coast, South Africa. Journal of Human Evolution 217, 103853. read more
By Mareike Stahlschmidt The Department of Evolutionary Anthroplogy held a retirement event for our dear colleagues Gerhard Weber and Harald Wilfing on October 1st. Two invited speakers, Karen Kastenhofer (Institute for Technological Assessment, ÖAW) and Philipp Gunz (Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropolgy), gave wonderful presentations on their work and early career steps with Harald and Gerhard respectively. Overall, it was a warm and memorable celebration honoring years of dedication to our department and exceptional academic achievements. Colleagues, friends, and family gathered to share stories on the history of our department and to wish the retirees all the best for their new life chapter.
by Pere Gelabert. On September 25, 2026, the University of Vienna's Biology Building hosted the HEAS Workshop, New Methodologies and Perspectives in Palaeolithic Archaeofauna. Organized by Marjolein Bosch (Vienna Institute of Archaeological Sciences) and Pere Gelabert (Department of Evolutionary Anthropology). The event united international experts to discuss how modern science is transforming the study of ancient human-animal relationships. The workshop consisted of two main blocks: the first was a set of presentations from experts and the second was a discussion moderated by the organisers about possible integration strategies. The talks included: Isotopes and Art: Alex Pryor (University of Exeter) presented mammoth mobility tracking and its implications for prey availability in the landscape as part of the ERC Project MAMBA, while Olivia Rivero (University of Salamanca) explored animal symbolism in Palaeolithic art in relation to contemporary archaeological faunal assemblages. Molecular Breakthroughs: Shevan Wilkin (University of Basel) and Anna Wagner (University of Reading) showcased the rising power of proteomics in analysing ancient faunal remains. They presented on advances in both the identification of the type of animal tissues exploited by past human groups and the development of integrated ZooMS and zooarchaeological datasets to increase taxonomic identifications, respectively. Dietary Insights: Ana B. Marín Arroyo (University of Cantabria) presented PrehGastro, examining prehistoric culinary practices and how this can be used in public dissemination as…
Yan, Y., Mishol, N., Lange, K., Zhang, Z., Bodek, G., Kigel, A., Priel, N., Egyes, N., Ronen, O., Nini, I., Rotenstreich, L., Philosoph, A., Martinez, S., Beltramone, S., Tsujikawa, R., Rozenblatt, A., Wange, L.E., Torralvo, M., Hirsh, G., Elboim, Y., Viukov, S., Korenfeld, I., Damal Kandadai, M., Cluzeau, O., Nissim-Rafinia, M., Meshorer, E., Hanna, J.H., Vereecke, E., Marom, A., Kuhlwilm, M., Bourque, G., Marques-Bonet, T., Fishilevich, S., Inoue, F., Gokhman, D., 2026. The gene-regulatory evolution of the human skeleton. Nature. read more
Bielke, A., Ardestani, S.S., Sharif, B., Orozco-ter Wengel, P., Fitak, R.R., Wallner, B., Wilson, K., Mohandesan, E., 2026. Demographic history and management practices shape the genomic landscape of New Zealand’s feral Kaimanawa Horses. BMC Genomics. read more
By Pere Gelabert On the 14th of September, Michelle Hämmerle successfully defended her PhD thesis titled “Ancient Pathogens in Context - Paleogenomic Insights into Human Ancestry, Disease Burden, and Living Conditions in Past Populations.” Michelle has worked intensively over the last three years in multiple genomics projects that developed cutting-edge approaches to understand past human living conditions. Her thesis comprises one published paper and two others currently under revision. The thesis focuses on recovering and analysing human genomic data and human pathogenic strains from past individuals to understand the relationship between biology, social status, cultural practices and the lifestyle of past individuals. She has put an incredible amount of work into her research while also helping her colleagues in many other projects. We congratulate you, Michelle, and wish you the best in the future!
Keller, M., Guellil, M., Slavin, P., Saag, L., Irdt, K., Kabral, H., Solnik, A., Malve, M., Valk, H., Kriiska, A., Cessford, C., Inskip, S.A., Robb, J.E., Cooper, C., von Planta, C., Seifert, M., Reitmaier, T., Baetsen, W.A., Walker, D., Lösch, S., Szidat, S., Metspalu, M., Kivisild, T., Tambets, K., Scheib, C.L., 2026. A refined phylochronology of the second plague pandemic in Western Eurasia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 123, e2534899123. read more
Huang, X., Chen, S., Han, S., Kuhlwilm, M., 2026. Genomic landscapes of natural selection in great apes. Genome Biology. read more
Crego-Walters, M., Cuadros-Espinoza, S., Ruiz-Gartzia, I., Han, S., Hermosilla-Albala, N., Helsen, P., Frandsen, P., Brumwell-Prats, A.M., Alentorn-Moron, P., Fontsere, C., Alvarez-Estape, M., Ngofuna, M., Monghiemo, C., Leendertz, F., Thompson, J., Fasbender, D., Dieguez, P., Lokasola, A.L., Brand, C., Ndjango, J.-B., Georgiev, A.V., Giles, J.A., Liu, W., Li, Y., Sharp, P.M., Pereboom, Z., Andrés, A.M., Kuhlwilm, M., Gronau, I., Kuehl, H., Wessling, E.G., Narat, V., Surbeck, M., Hart, J.A., Hart, T.B., Hvilsom, C., Krützen, M., Stevens, J., Hahn, B.H., Lizano, E., Prado-Martinez, J., Marques-Bonet, T., 2026. Targeted chromosomal sequencing of wild bonobos identifies a genetically distinct subpopulation east of the Lomami river. Genome Biology. read more
Obrochta, W.M., Marcinkowska, U.M., Ball, M.E., Brittain, R.S.A., Galbarczyk, A., Klimek, M., Nenko, I., Stephen, I.D., Windhager, S., Jasienska, G., 2026. The evaluation of facial features as markers of cardiometabolic health in women of post-reproductive age. Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health 14. read more
by Martin Kuhlwilm A new ancient DNA study from a Saka-era burial site in Kyrgyzstan led by HEAS researchers offers a rare glimpse into the family structures of Iron Age nomads. Researchers analyzed genetic material from 12 people buried at Boz-Barmak, dating to the 4th–2nd centuries BCE. The individuals fit within the genetic range of ancient and modern groups from Central Eurasia and Siberia. While the team found no immediate family pairs (such as parent-child or siblings), they detected several second- and third-degree connections, suggesting a broader web of kin across the community. Strikingly, all the men shared the same Y chromosome lineage, which is also common in present-day Kyrgyz populations, while mitochondrial DNA, inherited from mothers, was notably diverse. This pattern supports a patrilocal social system, where men remained in their home group and women moved in from elsewhere, boosting genetic diversity. Despite the modest amount of recoverable DNA, the findings add to our understanding of how kinship, mobility, and social organization shaped the population history of Central Eurasia’s nomadic societies. Funding: Vienna Science and Technology Fund (WWTF) grant 10.47379/VRG20001 (Martin Kuhlwilm); European Research Council (ERC) SHADOWS project (101163057) and Austrian Science Fund (FWF) 10.55776/P36433 (Pere Gelabert); Austrian Science Fund (FWF) 10.55776/ESP546 (Sojung Han). https://www.heas.at/research/publications/genomic-insights-into-the-iron-age-saka-of-boz-barmak-kyrgyzstan/
Rymbekova, A., Gelabert, P., Llanos-Lizcano, A., Balakrishnan, K., Hämmerle, M., Han, S., Cheronet, O., Abdykanova, A., Kasymkulov, K., Hrivnyak, M., Eng, J.T., Pinhasi, R., Kuhlwilm, M., 2026. Genomic insights into the Iron Age Saka of Boz-Barmak, Kyrgyzstan. Scientific Reports. read more
Stanton, D.W.G., Bergström, A., Heintzman, P.D., van der Valk, T., Carmagnini, A., Ersmark, E., Pawar, H., Sandoval-Velasco, M., Androsov, S., Fedorov, S., Kuhlwilm, M., Nagel, D., Plotnikov, V., Protopopov, A., Shapiro, B., Barnett, R., Sinding, M.-H.S., Marques-Bonet, T., Yamaguchi, N., Gilbert, M.T.P., Götherström, A., Skoglund, P., Frantz, L., Dalén, L., 2026. Paleogenomes reveal the evolutionary relationship between modern and cave lions. Cell 189, 4425-4436.e4411. read more
Pere Gelabert Our Neanderthal heritage Did you know that there were once several Neanderthal groups, but only some of them encountered modern humans and had offspring? This means some people today still carry a fraction of the original Neanderthal genome. The Neanderthals were the first truly pan-European human population. Traces of them span more than 250,000 years and can be found across Europe. However, until recently, our understanding of them was fragmented: different countries had their own datasets, and scientists specialising in archaeology, anthropology, genetics and geology often worked in isolation. To unite this knowledge, the COST Action ‘Integrating Neanderthal Legacy: From Past to Present’ (iNEAL) brought together experts from across the continent. They shared data, aligned their research methods, and created a more complete picture of who the Neanderthals were and how they lived. Connecting minds and reconstructing the past “The Action developed a shared database and research guidelines, helping researchers across Europe work with the same standards”, explained Professor Ivor Janković, Chair of the Action from the Institute for Anthropological Research in Croatia. A major result was the Catalogue of Neandertal Sites, listing 127 archaeological sites across the continent. “This publication is already being used by scholars”, said Ivor Janković. “And we’re committed to continuing data collection for a future update that will serve as a starting point…
Gallup, A.C., Windhager, S., Eldakar, O.T., 2026. Faces reveal accurate information about overhand throwing ability in men. Animal Behaviour 237, 123621. read more
By Gerhard Weber The fossils found from Ethiopia are in Vienna for the first time for examination at the Department of Evolutionary Anthropology at the University of Vienna. An interdisciplinary and international research team led by the Department of Evolutionary Anthropology at the University of Vienna was on the road in the Somali region in eastern Ethiopia in the years 2000-2009 to search for the ancestors of mankind. For the first time in the history of Austria, it has been possible to make some finds of australopithecines and even earlier hominins. These date back to a time of over 5 million to 3 million years ago. Now an export permit has finally been obtained in order to be able to examine the finds in Vienna using state-of-the-art methods. It is particularly interesting that the fossils all come from a locally narrowly defined area of less than 100 km2, but cover exactly the period in which our first truly identifiable precursors, the australopithecines, developed. Such sites from the early Pliocene are very rare and it is hoped that the detailed examination of the finds will provide further information about the beginnings of the incarnation. The project was initiated in 2000 by the anthropologist Univ. Prof. Horst Seidler and continued for ten years. In the desert-like sediments around…
Végh, E.I., Afjehi-Sadat, L., Giannì, M., Horejs, B., Yazbeck, C., Higham, T., 2026. Tiny Hopes─Assessing Protein Preservation in Collagen-Depleted Bones. Journal of Proteome Research. read more
Menéndez, L.P., Veigl, S., It Takes Two to Tango: A Pluralist Account for Building Comprehensive Explanations in Human Evolution. American Anthropologist read more
Edeltin, L., Niespolo, E., Kracht, O.M., Alon, S., Amos, L., Friesem, D.E., Goder-Goldberger, M., Grono, E., Lavi, R., Porat, N., Schechter, H.C., Tejero, J.-M., Ujma, C., Wieler, N., Marder, O., 2026. Dawn of the Initial and Early Upper Paleolithic blade industries in the Levant: Mobility and interactions as reflected from Shualim Rockshelter, Israel. Journal of Human Evolution 215-216, 103846. read more
By Thomas Beard What is the ESRF?: The European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF) is a circular particle accelerator that is capable of a varied range of radiation-based analyses, which in the ESRF’s own words makes it a “giant microscope”. A famous example of a synchrotron-like particle accelerator is that of the CERN Large Hadron Collider in Geneva, Switzerland. The ESRF works on the same principles as CERN but it is only speeding up the particles not trying to collide them. All synchrotrons use electromagnetic fields to propel ions to very high speeds with recent renovations at the ESRF giving it the brightest beam of any synchrotron facility in the world. Researchers based at a university in a country contributing to the ESRF project can use the facility for free, if their grant proposal is successful. If you are interested, I would suggest checking out the ESRF’s website, which has a lot of useful information and you can even see if your research would be possible at the facility. Who and Why?: One of the main aims of the MicroStratDNA group is to understand how ancient DNA (aDNA) preserves in archaeological cave sediments. Within current literature there are many theories about what the source of the aDNA could be including; bones, faecal matter or even DNA bound to minerals found…
I am a PhD candidate in the Department of Evolutionary Anthropology at the University of Vienna. In my current project, I use ancient DNA from sediments to investigate human and animal presence beyond the visible (zoo-)archaeological record. In particular, I am interested in applying biomolecular methods to archaeological and evolutionary questions. By combining sedaDNA with microarchaeological data, I look for patterns of co-occupation and interaction between humans and other animals, such as large carnivores. I hold a BSc in Biomedicine and an MSc in Evolutionary Anthropology and am currently co-supervised by Pere Gelabert and Mareike Stahlschmidt, with affiliations to the BEAM lab and the Microarchaeology group.
By Dr Emese Végh As a postdoc at the Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, I usually spend my days in relatively quiet labs or in front of the computer trying to decipher questions in human evolution and archaeological science. But last Friday, I traded my lab coat for a microphone (or rather a voice recorder on my phone) and headed out into the vibrant chaos of the Lange Nacht der Forschung (Long Night of Research) in Vienna. There were many stations representing researchers and themes from HEAS, and I wanted to see what type of outreach and attention they get. From the modern halls of the University Biology Building (UBB), to the historic buildings of the Academy of Sciences and the University Main Building, I caught up with colleagues who were busy translating complex science into hands-on puzzles, and explanations for thousands of curious visitors. My first stop was visiting Dr Nicole Grunstra’s station at the UBB. Her research tackles a classic ‘human’ problem: why is birth so difficult for us? The traditional view is that humans are uniquely cursed with difficult births because of our big brains and narrow pelvises. But Nicole’s station, complete with 3D-printed pelvises and tiny animal skulls, tells a different story. Many precocial species (i.e., animals whose young stand up shortly after birth, like cows,…
The project LEGION – machine LEarninG-enabled Identification of archaeological Objects in the middle daNube river basin, led by HEAS member Dominik Hagmann as a researcher at the OeAI/OeAW in collaboration with colleagues from the TU Wien Computer Vision Lab, has been recently approved within the Heritage Science Austria 2.0 programme. The project integrates machine learning and archaeological expertise to establish a unified, AI-supported typochronology for Roman common ware from the ancient metropolis of Carnuntum (Austria). Based on a corpus of c. 70,000 digitized profile drawings, LEGION develops a scalable and reproducible framework for the classification, dating, and interpretation of archaeological mass finds, combining eXplainable AI (XAI) and human-in-the-loop (HITL) approaches. By linking morphological and contextual data, the project generates new insights into production, distribution, and settlement dynamics along the UNESCO World Heritage Site “Danube Limes,” while providing an open, FAIR- and CARE-compliant digital research infrastructure for future applications in Heritage Science. Funding ÖAW – Heritage Science Austria 2.0 (Heritage_2024-12_LEGION): https://www.oeaw.ac.at/foerderungen/foerderprogramme/heritage-science-austria Project webpage: https://www.oeaw.ac.at/en/oeai/research/historical-archaeology/archaeology-of-the-roman-provinces-in-the-latin-west/legion
Kirchengast, S., Bühler, B., Hagmann, D., 2026. Sexual Dimorphism in the Association Between Status Symbols and Body Height in the Early Medieval Avar Population from the Csokorgasse Burial Ground (Vienna, Austria). Nature & Anthropology2026, 4, 10004 read more
Menéndez, L.P., Luisi, P., López-Sosa, M.C., Da Silva, S.M., Buck, L.T., Kuzminsky, S.C., Sánchez, M.Q., Le Maître, A., Chappard, C., Rios, C., 2026. µCT scanning effects on aDNA and a multi-step workflow for archaeological petrous portions. PLoS One 21, e0334682. read more
Akbari, A., Perry, A., Barton, A.R., Kariminejad, M., Gazal, S., Li, Z., Zeng, Y., Mittnik, A., Patterson, N., Mah, M., Zhou, X., Price, A.L., Lander, E.S., Pinhasi, R., Rohland, N., Mallick, S., Reich, D., 2026. Ancient DNA reveals pervasive directional selection across West Eurasia. Nature. read more
HEAS Network Associate José-Miguel Tejero is the Principal Investigator of the Spanish Consolidator Research Grant PHUMA (First Human Population of the Peruvian Andean Plateau), developed under the scientific co-direction of Leslye Valenzuela (French National Centre for Scientific Research, CNRS, and Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, PUCP). The project brings together several HEAS members, including Pere Gelabert, Olivia Cheronet, Tom Higham, Katerina Douka, and Mareike C. Stahlschmidt, alongside researchers from partner institutions: Xavier Mangado, Julien Le Guirriec, and Santiago Riera (University of Barcelona), Dagmara Socha (University of Warsaw), Ximena Suárez (University of São Paulo), Alessandra Caballero and Gerardo Vega Toscano (PUCP, Peru), Nick Taylor (Stony Brook University), and Lola Larssonneur (Paris 1 Panthéon Sorbonne University). PHUMA is a pioneering project combining archaeological and biomolecular approaches, including ancient DNA (aDNA), sedimentary ancient DNA (sedaDNA), and paleoproteomics, to investigate the cultural and biological adaptations of the first human populations to settle permanently on the Peruvian Andean Plateau at altitudes exceeding 3,500 metres above sea level. The project addresses the formidable environmental pressures these populations faced, including hypoxia, extreme cold, intense solar radiation, and scarce food resources, during the transition between the Late Pleistocene and the Early Holocene. PHUMA will generate extensive genomic and archaeological datasets from some of the oldest known Pleistocene sites in the region, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding…
Congratulations to PhD Emily Pigott, who defended her doctoral thesis on Monday 30th March. Emily published two papers during her PhD research and has two more in review/submission. Her main paper was in PNAS and was about a small Neanderthal bone that she found using ZooMS from a site in the Crimea called Starosele. Her other paper was in the Journal of Palaeolithic Archaeology. She worked incredibly hard to finish in just under 3 years. An hour after the defence she found that she had been successful in her application for a 2 year post doc position working in Tubingen, Germany on Palaeolithic sites in Armenia. Congrats Dr Emily Pigott from everyone in HEAS!
We are pleased to announce that Dr. Alejandra Sánchez-Polo has been awarded a prestigious Marie Skłodowska-Curie Postdoctoral Fellowship (MSCA). Starting in early 2027, she will carry out her project under the joint supervision of two HEAS team leaders, Pamela Fragnoli (OEAI–OEAW) and Mareike Stahlschmidt (Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, University of Vienna). Her project, “Architectures of Earth during the Transition to the Iron Age in Iberia (2nd–1st Millennium BC): Technologies, Traditions and Knowledge Transmission” (IBEARTH), investigates how earthen architecture—particularly mudbrick construction—both shaped and reflected social transformations between the Late Bronze Age and the Early Iron Age (c. 1200–400 BC) in inland Iberia. Adopting an integrated approach that combines petrographic, micromorphological, microbotanical, and biomolecular analyses with ethnographic perspectives, the project examines the transmission of construction knowledge, the organisation of labour, and the social meanings embedded in building practices. In doing so, it offers new insights into often-overlooked dimensions of past societies, including gender roles and the diversity of labour contributions.
I am a psychologist, a PhD candidate in Social Complexity Sciences at Universidad del Desarrollo (Chile), and a Visiting PhD Candidate at the Vienna Doctoral School of Cognition, Behavior and Neuroscience (VDS CoBeNe) – Cognitive Biology, University of Vienna. My research focuses on the behavioral foundations of interpersonal conflict, integrating evolutionary game theory, causal inference, and computational social science methods. My PhD dissertation consists of two empirical articles. Drawing on sexual selection theory, the first examines how sex differences and socially aversive personality traits (the Dark Triad) shape aggressive dispositions, using latent variable models to analyze how individual differences relate to conflict escalation. The second examines how interpersonal conflict is dynamically inferred and regulated during real-time bargaining interactions, focusing on how emergent patterns of emotional coordination—such as affiliative signaling and mimicry—influence perceptions of conflict and negotiation outcomes.
I am a PhD researcher in the Department of Evolutionary Anthropology at the University of Vienna. My research focuses on ancient DNA recovered from sediments. I am interested in exploring patterns of social organization, mobility, and human-animal interactions using archeogenomic methods.
Stahlschmidt, M.C., Power, R.C., Heinrich, S., Poggenpoel, C., Parkington, J., 2025. A microcontextual investigation of Later Stone Age ash deposits and associated interment of human remains at Faraoskop Rock Shelter, South Africa. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 17, 23. read more
I am a PhD student in paleogenomics focusing on the study of medical genetics and ancient genomic data. I am primarily interested in analyzing pathogenic variants from past populations to answer questions linked to health status assessment and the evolutionary history of cancer predisposition. I am currently working on projects related to ancient oncogenetics, specifically the identification of both germline and somatic mutations and investigating how population dynamics shaped the oncogenetic landscape in antiquity.
I am an APART-USA Fellow in the Department of Evolutionary Anthropology at the University of Vienna. My research utilizes recovering ancient biomolecules from archaeological and museum specimens and objects to answer diverse questions on human-mediated evolutionary processes, including domestication, extinction, and mechanisms of zoonoses. My multidisciplinary approach integrates tools and theories from the life sciences (palaeogenomics, biology, zoology), the humanities (history), and social sciences (archaeology and cultural anthropology).
We are proud to announce that our HEAS member Dr. Elmira Mohandesan and her postDoc (Siavash Salek Ardestani) have published a new open-access paper in BMC Genomics introducing GENOVIS, a user-friendly Python tool for population genomics visualization.GENOVIS integrates six key analysis modules into one flexible framework, available via both command-line and graphical interfaces.Developed at the University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna and the University of Vienna, it enables fast, reproducible, publication-ready figures for researchers worldwide. https://www.heas.at/research/publications/genovis-a-python-package-for-the-visualization-of-population-genetic-analyses/
Salek Ardestani, S., Mohandesan, E., 2026. GENOVIS: a Python package for the visualization of population genetic analyses. BMC Genomics 27, 190. read more
Higham, C., Higham, T., 2026. Dealing With Inbuilt Age: A Bayesian Approach to Radiocarbon Dating of Rice, Bamboo and Charcoal From Non Ban Jak, Thailand. Archaeometry. read more
I am an anthropologist and archaeologist specialising in the study of human remains from archaeological contexts. I am currently a postdoctoral researcher at the University of Vienna, in the Department of Evolutionary Anthropology. I hold a PhD in Quaternary and Prehistory from Rovira and Virgili University (Tarragona, Spain), as well as a Master’s degree in Quaternary Archaeology jointly awarded by the same institution and the Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle (Paris, France). My research focuses on mortuary practices involving the manipulation of human remains, alongside evidence for interpersonal violence and cannibalism in past societies. I work across a broad range of chrono-cultural contexts, from the Upper Palaeolithic to the Bronze Age. This includes the analysis of human bone assemblages from sites such as Maszycka Cave (Kraków, Poland), Txispiri Cave (Gipuzkoa, Spain) and El Mirador Cave (Atapuerca, Spain), among others. I am also an active member of the Atapuerca Project, contributing both in the field and in the laboratory. My work combines a range of taphonomic and analytical approaches, including classical osteological methods, residue analysis, and detailed studies of bone surface modifications.
I am a population geneticist who specializes in the study of ancient human DNA, using this DNA to reconstruct the lives of people in the past. My current focus is on ancient DNA extracted from sediments, and we use these sediments to trace the presence of ancient people where they lived and worked, and in the absence of skeletal remains. My group is also heavily involved in the development of computational methods for the analysis of challenging aDNA datasets.
In November 2025, Pere Gelabert, Mareike Stahlschmidt, and Benjamin Vernot from the DEA, organized a symposium on integrating the new field of Paleoenvironmental DNA within Human Evolution studies, bringing together leading international researchers to exchange perspectives on current challenges and future directions in sedaDNA. [caption id="attachment_5544" align="alignnone" width="300"] Photo Credit Carla Gomez[/caption] You can see a talk from one of the speakers, Karina Sand, on the HEAS YouTube channel. [yotuwp type="videos" id="PX49CBUIQF4" ]
